In this post I will be discussing the beautiful Arethusa coins of Syracuse in Sicily. This will cover a period of around two hundred years, from their inception, through their zenith and finally their fall from favour. These coins were not just currency, but powerful tools of propaganda in promoting the city’s wealth and cultural accomplishments during the fifth to the third centuries BCE. They remain among the most beautiful and desirable coins in modern times. I will discuss ten coins, all from the Hunterian coin collection in Glasgow. Photographs in this post are by the author. In addition, I have linked to the Hunterian website in the caption for each photograph.
Background
Syracuse was colonised by Corinthians in 733 BCE, its surrounding fertile lands ensuring a prosperous farming economy, with the natural harbour of the adjacent island of Ortygia providing good opportunity for trade throughout the Mediterranean (Rutter, 1997: 11-12). Coinage had been developed initially in Asia Minor around 600 BCE and was quickly adopted by Aegina, Corinth and later Athens. Coinage then reached Sicily by around 550 BCE, initially in eastern Sicilian cities and spreading west. By around 500 BCE the prosperous city state of Syracuse was now keen to develop its own coinage, a tetradrachm of about 17.4g (Rutter, 1997: 101-116). Around 400 BCE dekadrachms were issued, weighing around 43.13g. Figure 1 shows both ancient coins compared to a modern one pound coin for comparative purposes.
Coin 1
Coin 1 is a tetradrachm from circa 500 BCE. Initially, the obverse of these coins depicted a quadriga (a chariot driven by a charioteer and four horses), representing the interests of the horse racing aristocracy of Syracuse (Rutter, 1997: 115) (Fig. 2). The scene is largely two dimensional, with the chariot depicting one wheel, and the presence of four horses only being indicated by the legs of the horses and one of the other horses rearing its head back. The horses have their hooves on the ground, depicting a slow canter (described numismatically as a slow quadriga). A partial inscription at the top of the coin reads ΣΥΡΑ, the full version being ΣΥΡΑΚΟΣΙΟΝ (the genitive plural form of Syracuse, meaning ‘of the Syracusans’).
The reverse of this coin (Fig. 3) depicts a female head in the centre of an incuse quadripartite square. Whether the female figure actually represented Arethusa, the patron deity of Syracuse, or another deity such as Demeter or Persephone, who were also important deities to the Syracusans, is unclear. As previously discussed in my ‘Dolphins of the Ancient World’ post, in ancient Greek mythology Arethusa was a water nymph who was pursued by a river god all the way from Greece to Syracuse, where she was transformed by the goddess Artemis into a freshwater spring to avoid being raped.
Coin 2
In coin 2 (Figs. 4 and 5) from around twenty years later, circa 485 BCE, there have been several important changes. The first change is the addition on the obverse (Fig. 4) of Nike as a winged victory, who is depicted either crowning the charioteer or the horses. In this particular coin, Nike is crowning the horses. On the reverse (Fig. 5), the bust of Arethusa is enlarged and the incuse square has been dropped. The female figure is surrounded by four dolphins, thus making it more obvious that this is in fact Arethusa, the patron deity of Syracuse. A final change is that the inscription of ‘of the Syracusans’ has been moved to the reverse of the coin and is situated around the bust of Arethusa. The charioteer and chariot remain rather two dimensional, as do the horses. Arethusa is depicted as a smiling young woman with a pearl diadem and necklace, the four dolphins swimming round her in a clockwise motion. Her appearance is still quite stylised.
Coin 3
Coin 3 from around 20 years after coin 2 in 465 BCE is shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The obverse is similar to that of the previous coin, but on the reverse Arethusa is represented with a more serious expression, and with a different hairstyle, wearing a bun and an ampyx (hair-band). She also wears an earring and necklace, unfortunately not obvious in this example. Notably, the dolphins are no longer swimming clockwise, with the front two dolphins now facing each other- this was a stylistic change which was to persist.
The depiction of a quadriga on the obverse and an Arethusa surrounded by dolphins on the reverse was one which would endure for the next two hundred years, although there were various stylistic changes which evolved over time, particularly during the period between 420 BCE and 400 BCE (Rutter, 1997: 146; Wallenbrock 2023: 60). This was an era where multiple die engravers took the artistry of these coins to another level and began signing the dies they engraved. The era is known as the Signing Artists period of Syracuse, delivering some of the most beautiful coins ever produced, although only a small proportion of dies were signed (around 1 in 10,000). Coins 4-9 are all from this period.
Coin 4
Coin 4 is by the first signing artist to be discussed, Eumenos. This was one of the more prolific signers of the period, signing his name in various forms such as ΕΥΜΗΝΟΥ, ΕΥΜΕΝΟΥ, ΕΥΜ and ΕΥ.
On the obverse in Fig. 8, a few changes are evident: all four horses are depicted, rearing forward, and the charioteer is actively leaning forward with a kentron (whip or goad) and holding reins, his hair flowing behind him. This is much more of an ‘action’ depiction. There is a signature in the exergue, although it is difficult to distinguish in this example. On the reverse in Fig. 9, Arethusa has a much more realistic appearance, with an earring, an ampyx and a sophisticated hairstyle. The front dolphins continue to meet head to head and the Eumenos signature is quite clear, behind the neck of Arethusa.
Coin 5
In coin 5 shown in Figs. 10 and 11, the artist is thought to be Eumenos (ΕΥ). On the obverse, the furthest away horse is looking down and the charioteer is straining forward to control the horses with a kentron. Nike is above, ready to present the charioteer with a palm branch, and two dolphins are meeting in the exergue. On the reverse Arethusa again has a sophisticated hairstyle, but with no ampyx. She is wearing an earring and a plain necklace. Both sides are signed ΕΥ. The Syracuse legend is off flan in this particular example.
Coin 6
Coin 6 is by another signing artist- Euainetos. Fig. 12 shows an obverse with a fast quadriga- all horses hooves are off the ground. The charioteer seems to have lost or broken a rein, which can be seen on the ground, with the rear horse beginning to advance in front of the other horses. Both chariot wheels are visible. The overall appearance is of a much more three-dimensional depiction, with the lost rein adding a sense of drama. Nike hovers above in typical fashion with a wreath and holds a tablet announcing the artist’s name: ΕΥΑΙΝΕΤΟ. In the exergue there are two dolphins meeting. Fig. 13 shows an Arethusa wearing a sphendone tied above, with earrings and a necklace. She is depicted here as a more mature lady, with plumper cheeks and neck creases indicating that she is carrying some weight.
Coin 7
Coin 7 is by the artist Parmenides shown in Figs. 14 and 15. On the obverse of the coin in Fig. 14 there is the usual fast quadriga depiction. In this case, the horses are all looking in different directions. The chariot appears to have lost a wheel which has been crushed under the horses’ hooves. An ear of barley is depicted on the exergue. On the reverse in Fig. 14 Arethusa is depicted smiling slightly, wearing a sphendone with a flower pattern, triple drop earrings and a partial pearl necklace. ΠΑΡΜΕ is clearly visible under the bust. There are three free flowing dolphins and one emerging from behind the bust. Of note, coins 5 and 6 both have dolphins in the exergue whereas coin 7 has an ear of barley. These are thought to represent two workshops operating in tandem, with several artists working for both workshops (Rutter, 1997: 145). There is also evidence that some of them may have been itinerant workers rather than workshop based: Euainetos is known to have engraved for two other Sicilian cities, namely Katane and Kamarina (Rowan, 2025).
Coin 8
Coin 8 is a dekadrachm by the signing artist Kimon, who appeared slightly later than the others, and is considered by many to be the most talented of the signing artists. On the obverse in Fig. 16 a fast quadriga is depicted, with lifelike horses looking in different directions. The charioteer is straining forward, holding a kentron in his right hand and the reins in his left hand. The chariot is depicted three dimensionally with two wheels. Nike is above, about to crown the charioteer. A rather pleasing feature is the detailing on the wings of Nike. In the exergue there is set of armour: a helmet, greaves, cuirass and shield. The significance of the presence of armour on these dekadrachms is much debated and may be related to recent wars with both Athens and Carthage around the time these dekadrachms were produced. On the reverse in Fig. 17, Arethusa is depicted with exquisitely detailed locks of hair enclosed in a sphendone and tied at the top of her head. She is wearing a triple drop earring and a partial pearl necklace. On her ampyx are the letters KIM. She is surrounded by four dolphins, with one of them emerging playfully from behind the bust.
Coin 9
Coin 9 in Figs. 18 and 19 is another dekadrachm. In Fig. 18 the obverse shows a typical fast quadriga scene, with armour in the exergue. The reverse in Fig. 19 reveals an older, pensive Arethusa with a downwards gaze, the bottom dolphin playfully touching the neck. On the ampyx a Κ is evident, and if you look closely at the bottom dolphin, ΜΩΝ can be seen: this dekadrachm is by Kimon.
In the early fourth century BCE, the tradition of artists signing their coins came to an end. Tetradrachms with the usual format of quadriga/Arethusa continued, but as a deity Arethusa somewhat fell out of favour, and the deity of Persephone became more popular, probably as a result of the rulers of Syracuse wishing to promote a more panhellenic perception of the city (Motta, 2016: 384). This is evident in coin 10, the final tetradrachm in Figs. 20 and 21 from 317-310 BCE.
Coin 10
In Fig. 20 there is the usual depiction of a fast quadriga, but Nike has been replaced by a triskeles, an ancient symbol of uncertain meaning which was to become the national symbol of Sicily. The Syracuse legend is now in the exergue, with a monogram below, possibly representing Agathokles who was ruler at that time. In Fig. 20 Arethusa is still surrounded by dolphins but also adorned with grain leaves: the transformation of Arethusa to Persephone had begun.
Discussion
The Signing Artist period of Syracusan coinage lasted for a relatively short period of time, producing some of the highest quality of numismatic artistry the world has ever seen. How it started is not known, but presumably these die engravers were well aware of their artistic talents and wished their names to be associated with them. Unfortunately, apart from their names we know nothing of their lives: how were they trained? why were only a small proportion of dies signed? how were they paid? was the signing the result of competition between engravers? why were some signatures hidden and others not? And finally, why did they stop? We may never know the answers to these questions. However, coins with the highest quality of artistry were produced which can be appreciated and enjoyed to the present day.
Bibliography
- Head, B. W. (1910) Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 47 (Oct. 1910), pp. 33-38 [Online]. Available at https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy1.lib.gla.ac.uk/stable/4423482 (Accessed 13 May 2025).
- Motta, R. (2016) ‘Myths, Coins, and Semiotics: Arethusa and Persephone on the Coins of Syracuse, Philosopher Kings and Tragic Heroes: Essays on Images and Ideas from Western Greece, 2016, pp. 371-386 [Online]. Available at https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy2.lib.gla.ac.uk/stable/j.ctvbj7gjn.24 (Accessed 20 May 2025).
- Rowan, C. (2025) ‘The Signing Artist Coinage of Sicily’, Greek Numismatics Course, British School at Athens, Athens.
- Rutter, N. K. (1983) Greek Coinage, London, Shire Publications Ltd.
- Rutter, N. K. (1997) Greek Coinage of Southern Italy and Sicily, London, Cromwell Press Ltd.
- Wallenbrock, M. (2023) Three Centuries of Silver: Art and the Coins of Syracuse, Kindle Direct Publishing.
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